HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEM

2.3. The Treaties: Münster and Osnabrück

The Peace of Westphalia consisted primarily of two treaties—the Treaty of Münster (between the Holy Roman Empire and France) and the Treaty of Osnabrück (between the Empire and Sweden)—both signed on October 24, 1648. A separate Treaty of Münster between Spain and the Dutch Republic ended the Eighty Years’ War, recognizing Dutch independence.

Political and Territorial Resolutions

The treaties redrew the map of Europe, redistributing power and territory to establish a new political equilibrium:

• France gained territories in Alsace and Lorraine, extending its influence into the Rhine region and solidifying its status as a major European power.

• Sweden acquired Western Pomerania, the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, and control over the mouths of major German rivers, granting it both prestige and economic advantage.

• The Dutch Republic and Switzerland received formal recognition of their independence from the Holy Roman Empire.

• Within the Empire, the princes obtained the right to conduct their own foreign policy (with certain limitations), effectively confirming the political fragmentation of the German lands.

These territorial changes diminished Habsburg authority and reshaped the European balance of power, paving the way for the rise of France and Sweden as dominant continental powers.

Religious Settlements

The Treaty also reaffirmed and expanded the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which had introduced the principle of cuius regio, eius religio (“whose realm, his religion”). Under the Westphalian settlement:

• The right of each ruler to determine the official religion of his territory was reaffirmed, but subjects were guaranteed limited religious freedom.

• Calvinism, previously unrecognized under the Peace of Augsburg, was officially added alongside Catholicism and Lutheranism as a legitimate confession within the Empire.

• A fixed reference year (1624) was established to determine ecclesiastical ownership: territories that were Catholic or Protestant in that year were to remain so, reducing future disputes over church lands.

This religious compromise effectively ended the Wars of Religion in Europe, promoting coexistence over conversion and establishing the foundations for secular diplomacy.