Problem Formulation and Techniques

1. Problem formulation: Identifying research problems and formulating research questions.

A research problem is a gap in existing knowledge, a contradiction in an established theory, or a real-world challenge that a researcher aims to address in their research. It is at the heart of any scientific inquiry, directing the trajectory of an investigation.  There are 5 key characteristics that make a good research problem:

Novel: An ideal research problem introduces a fresh perspective, offering something new to the existing body of knowledge. It should contribute original insights and address unresolved matters or essential knowledge.  

Significant: A problem should hold significance in terms of its potential impact on theory, practice, policy, or the understanding of a particular phenomenon. It should be relevant to the field of study, addressing a gap in knowledge, a practical concern, or a theoretical dilemma that holds significance. 

Feasible: A practical research problem allows for the formulation of hypotheses and the design of research methodologies. A feasible research problem is one that can realistically be investigated given the available resources, time, and expertise. It should not be too broad or too narrow to explore effectively, and should be measurable in terms of its variables and outcomes. It should be amenable to investigation through empirical research methods, such as data collection and analysis, to arrive at meaningful conclusions. A practical research problem considers budgetary and time constraints, as well as limitations of the problem. These limitations may arise due to constraints in methodology, resources, or the complexity of the problem. 

Clear and specific: A well-defined research problem is clear and specific, leaving no room for ambiguity; it should be easily understandable and precisely articulated. Ensuring specificity in the problem ensures that it is focused, addresses a distinct aspect of the broader topic and is not vague. 

Rooted in evidence: A good research problem leans on trustworthy evidence and data, while dismissing unverifiable information. It must also consider ethical guidelines, ensuring the well-being and rights of any individuals or groups involved in the study.

1.1. Types of Research Problems

Across fields and disciplines, there are different types of research problems. We can broadly categorize them into three types. 

1. Theoretical research problems

Theoretical research problems deal with conceptual and intellectual inquiries that may not involve empirical data collection but instead seek to advance our understanding of complex concepts, theories, and phenomena within their respective disciplines. For example, in the social sciences, research problems may be casuist (relating to the determination of right and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience), difference (comparing or contrasting two or more phenomena), descriptive (aims to describe a situation or state), or relational (investigating characteristics that are related in some way). 

Here are some theoretical research problem examples:  

• • Problem: How do genetic mutations in tumor suppressor genes contribute to cancer progression?
    (This focuses on understanding fundamental biological mechanisms.)
  • • Problem: What are the limitations of quantum computing algorithms in solving NP-hard problems?
      (This explores fundamental principles without immediate application.)
    • Problem: What is the relationship between transformational leadership and employee motivation?
      (This examines abstract concepts and relationships.)

2. Applied research problems

Applied or practical research problems focus on addressing real-world challenges and generating practical solutions to improve various aspects of society, technology, health, and the environment. 

Here are some applied research problem examples:  

• Problem: What is the effectiveness of a new drug in reducing the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease?
  (This focuses on testing solutions based on existing theories.)
  
  • Problem: How can machine learning models improve the accuracy of medical image diagnosis?
    (This applies theoretical computing knowledge to solve real-world problems.)
  • • Problem: How can AI-driven predictive analytics enhance supply chain efficiency?
    • (This applies theories to develop practical business solutions.)
    
    

3. Action research problems

Action research problems aim to create positive change within specific contexts by involving stakeholders, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes in a collaborative manner. 

Here are some action research problem examples:  

• • Problem: How can hospital staff improve patient adherence to post-surgical care guidelines?
    (This involves real-time problem-solving in a specific setting.)
  • • Problem: How can a software company improve the security of its cloud-based applications using employee feedback?
      (This is a practical approach to solving an immediate issue.)
    • Problem: How can a retail company reduce employee turnover through new HR policies?
      (This involves implementing and testing changes in a real-world setting.)

These different types of research problems may give you some ideas when you plan on developing your own. 

1.2. How to Define a Research Problem/ How to come about a good problem to research

Research problem definition begins with identifying a broad problem area, followed by learning more about the problem, identifying the variables and how they are related, considering practical aspects, and finally developing the problem statement. 

        i.            Problem Identification: Start by identifying a research problem or topic of interest. This could come from gaps in existing knowledge, real-world issues, or personal curiosity. Look for a broad problem area: Identify under-explored aspects or areas of concern, or a controversy in your topic of interest. Evaluate the significance of addressing the problem in terms of its potential contribution to the field, practical applications, or theoretical insights.

       ii.            Preliminary Review of Literature: Read the literature, starting from historical aspects to the current status and latest updates. Once you have picked a topic, you can start doing preliminary research. This initial stage of research accomplishes two goals. First, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to discover issues that are currently being discussed by scholars and fellow researchers. This way, you get up-to-date, relevant knowledge on your topic.

Second, a preliminary review of related literature allows you to spot existing gaps or limitations in existing knowledge of your topic. With a certain amount of fine-tuning, you can later use these gaps as the focus of your research question.

     iii.            Identify the relevant variables and how they are related: Consider which variables are most important to the study and will help answer the research question. Once this is done, you will need to determine the relationships between these variables and how these relationships affect the research problem. 

     iv.            Think of practical aspects: Deliberate on ways that your study can be practical and feasible in terms of time and resources. Discuss practical aspects with researchers in the field and be open to revising the problem based on feedback. Refine the scope of the research problem to make it manageable and specific; consider the resources available, time constraints, and feasibility.

       v.            Formulate the problem statement: Craft a concise problem statement that outlines the specific issue, its relevance, and why it needs further investigation.

     vi.            Formulate a Research Question: Craft a concise research questions. Define specific, clear, and focused research questions or hypotheses. These questions should be answerable through research.

Example:
If you’re interested in education, your research problem might be: "How does online learning impact student performance in high school?"

1.3. How does a research problem relate to research questions or hypotheses?

A research problem sets the stage for the study. Next, research questions refine the direction of investigation by breaking down the broader research problem into manageable components. Research questions are formulated based on the problem, guiding the investigation’s scope and objectives. The hypothesis provides a testable statement to validate or refute within the research process. All three elements are interconnected and work together to guide the research. 

Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions

The following research question examples can further guide researchers on properly constructing a research question.

Example no. 1

Bad: How does social media affect people’s behavior?
Good: What effect does the daily use of YouTube have on the attention span of children aged under 16?

The first research question is considered bad because of the vagueness of “social media" as a concept and the question’s lack of specificity. A good research question should be specific and focused, and its answer should be discovered through data collection and analysis. You can also hone your ability to construct well-worded and specific research questions by improving reading skills.

Example no. 2

Bad: Has there been an increase in childhood malnourishment in Nigeria in the past 10 years?
Good: How have school intervention programs and parental education levels affected the rate of childhood malnourishment among primary school pupils?

In the second example, the first research question is not ideal because it’s too simple, and it’s easily answerable by a “yes" or “no." The second research question is more complicated; to answer it, the researcher must collect data, perform in-depth data analysis, and form an argument that leads to further discussion.

1.4. Common Pitfalls in Formulating Research Questions

When developing a research question, it is crucial to be aware of common pitfalls that can hinder the clarity and effectiveness of your inquiry. Recognizing these pitfalls can help ensure that the research question is robust and well-positioned to guide your study effectively.

1. Overly Broad Questions: One of the most frequent mistakes is crafting a research question that is too broad or vague. Such questions can lead to unfocused research and make it difficult to draw meaningful conclusions. Aim for specificity by clearly defining the scope and parameters of your study.
2. Lack of Feasibility: It is essential to ensure that your research question is feasible given your resources, time constraints, and access to data. Questions that are overly ambitious or complex may not be practical to investigate thoroughly.
3. Ambiguous Language: Using vague or ambiguous terms can lead to misunderstandings about the intent and focus of your research. Strive for precision in your wording to enhance clarity and facilitate effective communication with your audience.
4. Neglecting Existing Literature: Failing to review existing literature before formulating your research question can result in redundancy or the pursuit of questions that have already been adequately addressed. Conducting a thorough literature review is vital to identify gaps in knowledge and inform your research focus.
5. Ignoring Ethical Considerations: Research questions should always consider ethical implications, especially when involving human subjects or sensitive topics. Questions that could lead to unethical research practices or harm to participants should be carefully reconsidered.

2. Hypothesis formulation and testing: Defining hypotheses and research assumptions

Hypothesis formulation and testing involves creating a testable statement, called a "hypothesis," about a predicted relationship between variables in a research study, and then collecting data to either support or reject that statement, with the goal of drawing conclusions based on empirical evidence; research assumptions are underlying beliefs considered true within the study that inform the hypothesis but are not directly tested themselves. 

Statistical hypothesis testing requires several assumptions. These assumptions include considerations of the level of measurement of the variable, the method of sampling, the shape of the population distribution, and the sample size. The specific assumptions may vary, depending on the test or the conditions of testing.

Hypothesis Formation: In conducting hypothesis-driven research (especially in quantitative studies), you will formulate a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

• Example: “Online learning will improve high school students' performance in mathematics compared to traditional classroom learning.”

Key points about hypothesis formulation and testing:

• Hypothesis:

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested through research, usually stated as an "if-then" statement. 

• Null Hypothesis (H0):

A statement that there is no significant effect or relationship between variables, essentially the default assumption that is tested against. 

• Alternative Hypothesis (Ha):

The statement that the researcher wants to prove, proposing a specific relationship or effect between variables. 

2.1. Steps in Hypothesis Formulation and Testing:

1. Identify the research question: Clearly define the central question the study aims to answer. 

2. Develop the hypothesis: Formulate a testable statement predicting a relationship between variables based on the research question. 

3. State the null hypothesis: Formulate a statement that there is no significant effect or relationship between variables. 

4. Collect data: Gather relevant data using appropriate research methods. 

5. Analyze data: Use statistical tests to evaluate whether the data supports or contradicts the null hypothesis. 

6. Interpret results: Draw conclusions based on the analysis, considering the significance level and limitations of the study. 

Example:

• Research question: Does regular exercise improve cognitive function in older adults?
• Hypothesis: Individuals who engage in regular exercise will demonstrate significantly better cognitive performance compared to those who do not exercise regularly.
• Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference in cognitive performance between individuals who exercise regularly and those who do not. 

Important considerations:

• Specificity:

A good hypothesis should be clear, concise, and specific enough to be testable. 

• Falsifiable:

The hypothesis should be able to be proven incorrect based on empirical evidence. 

• Relevance:

The hypothesis should align with the research question and be relevant to the study's objectives. 

3. Developing a research proposal and plan: Structuring a research proposal and the planning process.

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal is a highly structured document that describes your study's topic and explains how you plan to investigate a specific inquiry. It typically provides an in-depth analysis of the theories that support your hypothesis, which is a projected answer to this inquiry. It can also show which methodologies you plan to use, including the practical steps for conducting your study process.

1. Include a title page

Add a specific page that introduces the document to readers at the beginning of your proposal document. This page typically shows the basic details of your project, such as its proposed title, your name, the current date, your supervisor's name, the institution hosting the project and the name of your department. Be sure to organize these elements logically by using a clear format and certain design attributes, like a bold font. It may be helpful to connect with your department leader to verify any requirements for this page.

2. Develop an abstract

An abstract is a one-page document that summarizes the key points of your full body of work in 150 to 300 words. After finishing a title page, consider including this page to highlight the objectives and outcomes of your research. As a result, readers can better understand the purpose of your research inquiry and review how you plan to structure your final dissertation in the future, which may help your team receive critical funding. Here are brief descriptions of the four key elements in an abstract:

• Aim: State the purpose of your research project and include your primary objectives.
• Methods: Show the procedures you adopted to choose research subjects, collect evidence and best answer your initial inquiry.
• Hypotheses: Briefly discuss what new information your team hopes to discover or conclusions they expect to make while analyzing evidence in the future.
• Projected effects: State how the results of a research project can help develop an academic field or improve a specific group of individuals.

3. Write an introduction

Discuss the concepts central to your research inquiry and provide contextual information that may help others understand your project more efficiently. It is often helpful to provide general knowledge about your topic before including any specific details. To accomplish this step, consider discussing key points in definitional statements, then explain both a topic's prevalence in an academic field. Developing a well-written introduction in your research proposal can also help a reader increase their enthusiasm about your project, plus the results you may provide.

4. Include background information:

It is essential to create an additional page to describe key details about the Statement of problem, Justification/Rationale, Aim, objectives, research questions and Hypothesis of the research proposal.

a. Compose a problem statement

A problem statement is a description of how your project might resolve the issues presented in a research question or add new observations. It may include any challenges that disrupt a solution, plus how your project can help address these conditions. You can also use this section to explain how your topic relates to a specific issue or question, which may help further clarify your project's purpose. Be sure a problem statement clearly defines why your future results may apply to a specific field or industry.

b. Justification/Rationale

State the rationale of your research proposal and explain, in an engaging way, why it is worthwhile to conduct.

c. Aims and Research Questions

Once you have determined a good angle for your study, it is time to compose your research objectives. A research objective will help you stay focused and prevent you from drifting off on tangents. Regardless of the specific topic or problem or method you choose, all study proposals must deal with the various types of research questions, specifically the following:

d. Develop research questions

Research questions are concise statements about the issues in an academic field or industry that your project plans to resolve. They can help pinpoint what information you intend to discover and define the purpose of your research. They can also help guide your writing process as you develop your research proposal, plus any documents you might compose for a project. Depending on the scope of your research, you can create one primary inquiry or a series of questions that clearly connect to a central idea.

e. Hypothesis The hypothesis provides a testable statement to validate or refute within the research process.

5. Develop a literature review

A literature review is a document that describes your project's primary and secondary sources, plus how they relate to your hypothesis. It can enable readers to better understand the key arguments supporting your research inquiry, developed by other experts in a field or industry. You can also use a literature review to demonstrate how existing knowledge can serve as a foundation for your research. It can also show how your project fits into these various discussions between scholars and why your study can add an original claim. The researcher might challenge the work of other experts by comparing and contrasting their theories or results. If the inquiry reveals a missing area of research, be sure to explain how the project may provide a more detailed evaluation of an issue. To format the literature review effectively, it may be helpful to structure the sources using a specific strategy. For instance, you can list them chronologically by publication date or separate them into different sections based on what theory they present.

6. Describe your research methodologies

Research methodologies describe the practical steps of a project and how to approach them, including which data collection tools and procedures to use. The researcher can also define the type of research of plan to use. For example, the study might involve releasing a survey to college students at a specific campus, then using their responses as data for analysis. This section can help you persuade others that your proposed techniques can address your research problem adequately and prevent unexpected issues during the process.

7. Add a conclusion

Summarize all previous information and highlight the importance of your proposal. You can emphasize the potential implications of your research on future projects, plus how it might alter existing knowledge in your particular subject area. You might also restate your research problem and clarify the results you hope a project can achieve. Consider reviewing the guidelines of your supervisor, as they may require you to address specific topics in a conclusion or prefer a certain document length.

8. Develop a References

Complete the references. Be sure to review any relevant guidelines, as the institution require you to structure a bibliography using a specific format.

9. Include budgeting information

Develop a budget that describes the costs of every project component and why these items can help you achieve your research goals.

3.1. Tips for writing a research proposal

Here are some tips to help you write a research proposal that can best follow an institution's standards:

• Ensure your statements are concise and brief. A research proposal often contains between 2,000-3,500 words or four to seven pages. To adhere to this length during the writing process, be mindful to use descriptive language and precise phrasing.
• Focus only on major research issues. Try focussing on only large-scale inquiries and key points in your research proposal. They can help you clarify the purpose of your project and its overall focus to readers, especially if they're unfamiliar with the topic.
• Proofread your document. Identify any spelling or grammatical errors in each component of your research proposal to better ensure you are describing information accurately. Consider using a professional proofreading service or software to detect these errors in a digital file.
• Use a robust vocabulary. Institutions often prefer research proposals to contain formal terms and scholarly language. Review documents published by the institution to learn its writing standards and understand the expectations of your reader base.
• Create a clear title for your research project. It's important that the title of your project contains universal language so readers can understand it immediately. This approach can also help you receive funding from an external organization.
• Acknowledge the authors of referenced publications. To avoid issues of plagiarism, it's important to recognize the authors of all books and articles you include in your project. Depending on the format you use, consider including referenced information in quotation marks or paraphrasing it using your own language choices.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Proposal Writing

·       Submitting lengthy proposals. When writing research proposals, be to the point. Your submitted document must be focused and concise. Don not diverge into irrelevant tangents without a clear sense of purpose.

·       Covering too much research ground. It is common for students to fail in delimiting the contextual boundaries of their studies, be it the topic, time, place, etc. As with any research paper, the proposed research must clearly inform the reader how the study will investigate the problem. Look for some research paper thesis examples so you would know how to clearly communicate the scope of your inquiry.

·       Not citing major works in a literature review. While it is advised to keep everything in the proposal at a minimum—a few milestone research studies must already be included. Proposals should be grounded in landmark studies that provide the groundwork for appreciating the growth and scope of the issue.

·       Too much focus on minor issues, yet very few details on major issues. A proposal must focus only a few key study questions to clearly argue why it should be conducted. Mentioning minor issues is acceptable but they should not overpower the major ones, which should control the overall narrative.

·       Inability to frame a persuasive and coherent argument for the proposed study. This is another common yet crucial mistake of students and grant-seekers. In essence, the research proposal must be able to effectively argue why a study should be approved or funded.

·       Poor grammar or careless writing. While a research proposal only represents a small part of a complete study, it is expected to be well-written and observes the writing style and guidelines of good academic writing.

3.2. Tips for writing a research proposal

Here are some tips to help you write a research proposal that can best follow an institution's standards:

• Ensure your statements are concise and brief. A research proposal often contains between 2,000-3,500 words or four to seven pages. To adhere to this length during the writing process, be mindful to use descriptive language and precise phrasing.
• Focus only on major research issues. Try focusing on only large-scale inquiries and key points in your research proposal. They can help you clarify the purpose of your project and its overall focus to readers, especially if they're unfamiliar with the topic.
• Proofread your document. Identify any spelling or grammatical errors in each component of your research proposal to better ensure you are describing information accurately. Consider using a professional proofreading service or software to detect these errors in a digital file.
• Use a robust vocabulary. Institutions often prefer research proposals to contain formal terms and scholarly language. Review documents published by the institution to learn its writing standards and understand the expectations of your reader base.
• Create a clear title for your research project. It's important that the title of your project contains universal language so readers can understand it immediately. This approach can also help you receive funding from an external organization.
• Acknowledge the authors of referenced publications. To avoid issues of plagiarism, it's important to recognize the authors of all books and articles you include in your project. Depending on the format you use, consider including referenced information in quotation marks or paraphrasing it using your own language choices.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Proposal Writing

·       Submitting lengthy proposals. When writing research proposals, be to the point. Your submitted document must be focused and concise. Don not diverge into irrelevant tangents without a clear sense of purpose.

·       Covering too much research ground. It is common for students to fail in delimiting the contextual boundaries of their studies, be it the topic, time, place, etc. As with any research paper, the proposed research must clearly inform the reader how the study will investigate the problem. Look for some research paper thesis examples so you would know how to clearly communicate the scope of your inquiry.

·       Not citing major works in a literature review. While it is advised to keep everything in the proposal at a minimum—a few milestone research studies must already be included. Proposals should be grounded in landmark studies that provide the groundwork for appreciating the growth and scope of the issue.

·       Too much focus on minor issues, yet very few details on major issues. A proposal must focus only a few key study questions to clearly argue why it should be conducted. Mentioning minor issues is acceptable but they should not overpower the major ones, which should control the overall narrative.

·       Inability to frame a persuasive and coherent argument for the proposed study. This is another common yet crucial mistake of students and grant-seekers. In essence, the research proposal must be able to effectively argue why a study should be approved or funded.

·       Poor grammar or careless writing. While a research proposal only represents a small part of a complete study, it is expected to be well-written and observes the writing style and guidelines of good academic writing.