GRAMMAR AND USAGE CONTENT

1. GRAMMAR

Definition - GRAMMAR

In Unit 3, we defined grammar as rule that teaches how to speak and write correctly according to the convention of a given language. Grammar is indeed the study of set of pattern in which words are arranged in order to be meaningful. It is the study of set rules to follow in construction of sentences and making utterances that are meaningful. It is a branch of the study of language which could be distinguished from the study of Phoneme (Sounds) and Semantics (Meaning).

MOOD

This is category of grammar which shows the nature/state/kind of sentence one makes. This can well be understood if we look at the type of Simple Sentences we learnt earlier in Unit 3:

1.     Statement – which states universal fact/truth (Objective/Declarative)  (God is merciful)

2.     Command - this gives order (Imperative) (shot up! Sit down! Get out!)

3.     Question – this could be WH- questions or other types of question sentences – Who, Where, Which, When, How, Is this.

4.     Exclamation – this expresses feeling of: hurt, anger, joy, fear (subjunctive)

MODALITY

This is application of Modal verb which is a class of ‘helping (auxiliary) verb’. They include:

Have to, Can(Could), Will(Would), Shall(Should), May(Might), Ought to, Must, Used to. Modal verbs go before the root verbs whih they are ‘helping, example: may go, would have gone, ought to been going. Modal verbs are never followed by the Simple Past Tense form. To use a modal verb in the past, you have to use the main verb in the Present Perfect. Example: He might have gone (using the Past Participle) but not He might went.

Modal verbs are used in expressing: Ability (I can) Possibility (It might rain) Impossibility (It can’t happen) Courtesy/Politeness (Could you lend me your biro?) Certainty (I shall be there unfailingly)

2. ASPECT

This is a category of grammar that shows whether an expression is in active or passive voice. Look at these two sentences

1.     The Headmaster gave two books to Amina. (Active voice)

2.     Amina was given two books by the Headmaster. (Passive voice)

The two sentences are saying the same thing but in a different ways. In sentence 1, the Headmaster is the Subject while Two books is the Direct Object, Amina is the Indirect Object. In sentence 2, Amina is the Subject, Two books is the Direct Object while the Headmaster is the Indirect Object.

In order to change an active sentence to a passive one, the active sentence must have at least a Subject and a Direct Object. In addition, it may have an Indirect Object.       

                                                          TENSE

This is the grammatical category of verb which expresses the time relationships of the action referred to in the sentence and the time of utterance. English language traditional grammar distinguishes three basic tenses namely: Present, Past and Future. Therefore, a tense represents the time or degree of completeness of the action or state represented by the verb.

                                     LIST OF VARIOUS TENSES

1.     THE PRESENT TENSE

This is used in showing the tense of the verb indicating when the action or event described occurs at the time of the utterance or when the speaker does not wish to make clear reference to time (of the action).

Examples: i. Ahmed prays every day.

                ii. Do you watch wrestling match?

The Present tense is divided into:

i.               The Present Simple Tense:

This is used to indicate:

a.     A Universal Truth: here we have matter that concerns all people, something common or affects all parts

Examples: i.   Twelve months make one tear.

                 ii.   Sixty minutes make one hour

               iii.   We all eat to live

b.     A Present Action or State: this indicates cerb which shows function of the senses.

Examples:  i.  To believe – we believe in God.

                  ii.  To understand – John understands you well.

                  iii.  To smell – the goat smells horribly.

c.     A Certain Capability

Examples: i.  My brother speaks (can speak) four languages

                 ii.  Do you ply Tennis?

3. The Present Continuous Tense

ii.               The Present Continuous Tense

This indicates:

a.     An action that begins at an indefinite time before and is taking place at the present time

Examples: i. I am lecturing the students.

                ii. The Lion is roaring in the forest.

b.     An action that continues from the beginning to an end of a given present or future period of time.

Example: I won’t come because I will be busy throughout today.

c.     Near Future Occurrence (verb of motion).

Example: i. We are meeting on Friday (speaking from Tuesday).

                ii. What are you lecturing tomorrow?

ii.              The Present Perfect Tense

This indicates:

a.     An action or state that is completed during some present incomplete period of time, such as “today”, “this week”, “this month” etc. For instance, action which does not have a specific time.

Example: i. We are expecting the VC this week.

               ii. Have you met my younger brother today?

b.     An action or state that takes place during a time that leads up to the moment of speaking. Such words like: “recently”, “lately”, “ever”, “never”, “since” etc, express these periods of time. Example:

-       The students have never submitted their assignments on time.

c.     Action that has just been made. Example: My boyfriend has just spoken to me.

 1.     THE PAST TENSE

Simply put, this indicates what has happened in the past. This can also be set in the following forms:

i.               The Past Simple Tense

This indicates:

a.     An action that is completed at or during some definite past time. It is frequently used with such words as “yesterday”, “lasy night”, “last month”. Example

Aisha spoke to me three days ago.

b.     When a definite past time is considered, even if an incomplete period of time is expressed. Examples:

i.               The man killed a goat last Sunday.

ii.              The players arrived late last night.

c.     A repeated or a habitual past action. Examples:

i.               I went to school when I was a boy.

We can also use the expression “used to” to show past habitual action.

ii.              Joy used to urinate on bed before.

ii    The Past Continuous Tense

       This indicates:

a.     A past action that begins indefinitely before and lasts to a later time with some other given past action or past time. Examples:

i.               It was raining when my friend returned.

ii.              My sister was sleeping when I went to the stream this morning.

b.     An action or state that continues from beginning to end of a given past period of time. Examples:

i.                Amina was writing an exam all day yesterday.

ii.              What were you doing last night?  

Iii   The Past Perfect Tense

      This is also called past participle. It is used to indicate an action or state of a thing that started at a far distant time in the past and got completed before the time of utterance. Example:

i.               I have eaten my breakfast.

ii.              He had completed his first degree before his father’s death.

4. THE FUTURE TENSE

3 THE FUTURE TENSE

 These are used when action or events described is to occur after the time of utterance. It indicates events that will happen later, tomorrow or in the future. It can be set in the following forms:

i.               The Future Simple Tense

This shows an action that takes place at some definite or indefinite time in the future. Examples:

i.               I shall talk to the students at a late date.

ii.              The HOD will travel tomorrow.

         ii          The Future Continuous Tense

                   This  indicates:

a.     An action that begins indefinitely before and lasts to a later time than some other given future action. Examples:

i.               My school will be playing tomorrow at the stadium.

ii.              By 12 pm tomorrow, I shall be marking scripts.

b.     An action that continues from beginning to end of a given future period of time. Examples:

i.               Every student will be writing when the exam starts.

ii.              What will you be doing next day then?

iii The Future Perfect Tense

      This indicates:

a.      An action that is completed in the future before some other given future action or some given future times begins. Example:

Faith would have danced with about five men before she left the hall.

b.     A past action (instead of the present perfect tense) Example:

The Spinsters would have seen their loved ones already.

Iv  The Future Perfect Continuous Tense

      This indicates an action that continues through a given period of time until another given future action or a given future time begins when the first action is still continuing. Example:

- By December this year, I shall have been lecturing for three years in Newgate.

5. CONCORD

Concord simply means agreement. By agreement, we mean the rules governing the make-up of a sentence construction in terms of verbs, nouns, pronouns and other part of speech. When the grammatical ordering of items is not followed correctly, the resultant expression would be a blunder.

               ANALYSIS OF THE TYPES OR RULES OF CONCORD

Most common mistake that mar students efforts in writing effectively are mistakes in agreement caused by inconsistency in the use of:

i.               Number as it involves:

i.               Subject and verb of a sentence

ii.              Pronoun and its antecedent (the Noun and Pronoun replacement)

    ii.         Person in terms of:

i.               Pronoun and its antecedent.

ii.              Shift from one person to another.

   Iii       Gender in terms of pronoun and its antecedent.

   Iv       Tense as it  involves shifts from one tense to the other

   V        Voice as it applies to shifts from active to passive voice.

The above problem areas have resulted in three Rules or Laws of Agreement:

a.     Subject/verb Agreement

b.     Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement

c.     Shifts in construction (sudden change from one number, person, tense, voice to another)

a.     SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT

The first rule of agreement states that a verb must agree in number with its subject. This means that a singular subject must be followed by a singular verb, while a plural subject is followed by a plural verb.

1.     S1 V1 (where S1 = Singular Subject and V1 = Singular Verb)

Example of sentences: i.  Eze goes to school.

                                  ii. Measles has been eradicated.

2.     S2 V2 (where S2 =Plural Subject and V2 = Plural Verb)

Examples of sentences:  i. Some people are stupid.

                                     ii. Youths are aggressive.

                                iii. The families were at the party.

3.     S1 and S1, V2 (where S1 and S1 = Compound Singular Subject and V2 = Plural)

Examples: i.  The boy and the girl are in love.       

                                ii. Pleasure and work do not mix.

4.    S2 and S2, V2 (where S2 and S2 = Compound Plural Subject and V2 = Plural Verb)

Examples: i. Boys and girls are needed here.

iii.           Some fathers and some mothers are strict.

6. NEGATION TO RULE (3) S1 AND S1, V2

First, when AND is replaced by such words as: ‘with’, ‘as well as’, ‘together with; the verb retains SINGULAR VERB as in:

Examples:  i. The boy with his sister is here.

                  ii. The boy as well as his sister is here.

                  iii. The man together with his wife is here.

Second, when a compound subject joined by “and” gives the impression of a unit, the verb becomes SINGULAR. Examples:

i.               Bread and butter is ready for you.

ii.             Garri and soup is tasty.

iii.           Trial and error results in success.

Thirdly, when a compound subject is connected with correlative, the SINGULAR VERB is used. Examples:

i.               Neither the teacher nor the student is here

ii.             Either the boy or the girl plays the piano.

iii.           Not only Hauwa but also Amina plays well.

b    PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT

      The second rule of agreement states that a pronoun must agree in number, gender, and case with its antecedent. This rule implies that:

i.               A pronoun replacing a noun  must have the same number as the noun it replaces

ii.             A pronoun replacing a noun must be Masculine if the noun is masculine; Feminine, if the noun is feminine; Neuter, if the noun is neuter.

iii.           A Subject noun must be replaced by a subject pronoun, an Objective noun is replaced by an objective pronoun.

NUMBER

i.               Nigeria expects everyone to do his duty.

                                          Singular         Singular

ii.             The kind and the wicked have their place.

                  Plural            Plural       Plural

iii.           All men are created equal, they are blessed by God.

                     Plural                            Plural       

iv.            Each of the students wanted to express his view.

Singular                                               Singular

CASE

i.               All men are created equal, they are blessed by God.

   Subject Plural               Subject Plural

ii.             Some women are fickle minded, they do not reason

Subject Plural                          Subject Plural

iii.           I met the man and I him the letter.

      Object Singular  Object Singular

iv.            The lady sang a beautiful solo when she was accompanied.

Subject Singular                            Subject Singular

GENDER

I.               Look at this lady, we believe she is ill.

            Feminine Singular    Feminine Singular

     Ii         When old men speak, we should listen to them

                       Masculine plural                                Masculine plural

7. SHIFTS IN CONSTRUCTION

c. SHIFTS IN CONSTRUCTION

To maintain a single idea, the third rule of agreement states that sentences must be the same in PERSON, NUMBER, VOICE and TENSE. By this rule, you are warned not to shift from one person to the other, one number to the other, one voice to the other and one tense to the other when expressing a single idea.

1.Do not change from one person to the other. Examples:

i. When you get into the plane, one feels comfortable.

          2^nd person                      3^rd person              (these are wrong)      

                        The correct one should read

   When one gets into the plane, one feels comfortable.

           3^rd person                      3^rd person

ii. I enjoy farming because it helps you appreciate nature.

1^st person                                      2^nd person                (these are wrong)

                                     The correct sentence should be:

I enjoy farming because it helps me appreciate nature.

1^st person                                  1^st person

2. Do not shift from one voice to the other. Example

i. He stood up, spoke sternly and was seated

        Active      Active                          Passive

          This is wrong. The correct one should be:

He stood up, spoke sternly and sat down.

     Active      Active                Active.

ii. We were punished but they praised him.

                   Passive                 Active

         This is wrong. The correct one should be:

We were punished but he was praised.

           Passive                     Passive

3. Do not shift your tense to another tense while expressing single idea. Example:

i. We rushed to the party, but nobody is there.

          Past                                         Present

                This is wrong. The correct one should be:

We rushed to the party but nobody was there.