HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL SYSTEM
This module examines the introductory aspect of the course. Being an eye-opener to the students on learning about the formation, nature, and trend of the international political system, the course will familiarize the students with ample information on the subject matter.
2. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648): Historical Events, Principles, and Resolutions
2.2. The Road to Peace: The Westphalian Negotiations
The negotiations leading to the Treaty of Westphalia were unprecedented in their complexity and scope. They began formally in 1644 and lasted four years, taking place simultaneously in the Westphalian cities of Münster and Osnabrück. This dual-location arrangement reflected the deep religious divisions among the participants: Catholic states met in Münster, while Protestant representatives convened in Osnabrück.
Participants and Diplomatic Innovation
Nearly all European powers were represented, including the Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden, Spain, the Dutch Republic, Denmark, and numerous German principalities. The Papacy, however, refused to formally recognize the negotiations, objecting to the inclusion of Protestant delegates and the principle of equality among confessions.
The Westphalian congress marked the emergence of modern multilateral diplomacy. For the first time, a peace conference brought together multiple powers to settle not just a single conflict but a web of interconnected wars. The delegates used ambassadors, mediators, and written correspondence to manage the negotiations—techniques that later became standard in international diplomacy. The process was long and arduous, hindered by conflicting agendas, religious mistrust, and power rivalries. Nevertheless, by 1648, exhaustion and pragmatism compelled all parties to compromise.