HISTORY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

HISTORY OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1.      Vitalism (17th-18th centuries):

·         Early ideas about organic compounds were rooted in vitalism, the belief that organic substances were endowed with a "vital force" that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. organic substances were endowed with a "vital force" that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. It was thought that living organisms had a special force that could produce organic compounds.

2.      Isolation of Organic Compounds (18th century):

·         The isolation and study of organic compounds began in the 18th century. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated several organic acids, including tartaric acid and citric acid.

·         French chemist Antoine Lavoisier played a crucial role in disproving the theory of phlogiston and laying the groundwork for a more systematic approach to chemistry.

3.      Elementary Organic Analysis (Early 19th century):

·         In the early 19th century, chemists such as Jöns Jakob Berzelius developed methods for elementary organic analysis, which involved determining the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in organic compounds.

·         The concept of chemical formulas for organic compounds began to emerge during this period.

4.      Structural Chemistry (Mid-19th century):

·         Auguste Laurent and Archibald Scott Couper independently proposed the idea of chemical structure, with Laurent suggesting a "type theory" and Couper introducing the concept of valence.

·         Aleksandr Butlerov in Russia made significant contributions to structural theory, introducing the concept of chemical structure diagrams.

5.      Synthesis of Organic Compounds (Late 19th century):

·         Hermann Kolbe and Edward Frankland pioneered the synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic precursors. Kolbe's synthesis of acetic acid from inorganic materials was a landmark achievement.

·         The concept of isomerism, where compounds have the same molecular formula but different structures, was established during this period.

6.      Development of Organic Reactions (Late 19th-early 20th centuries):

·         The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of various organic reactions and the understanding of reaction mechanisms. Perkin's synthesis of mauveine (the first synthetic dye) in 1856 is an example of the practical applications of organic chemistry.

7.      Birth of Biochemistry (Late 19th-early 20th centuries):

·         The understanding of organic compounds extended to biological systems, leading to the birth of biochemistry. Emil Fischer's work on enzymes and the lock-and-key model is notable.

8.      Modern Organic Chemistry (20th century onwards):

·         The 20th century witnessed the rise of modern organic chemistry, with advancements in spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, and computational methods.

·         The discovery of new reactions, the development of retrosynthetic analysis by E.J. Corey, and the emergence of organometallic chemistry expanded the synthetic possibilities in organic chemistry.

9.      Green Chemistry and Sustainability (Late 20th century onwards):

·         In recent decades, there has been a growing emphasis on green chemistry, focusing on sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in organic synthesis.

Important of Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is one of the most important branches of chemistry, contributing to many other scientific fields, including but not limited to inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, earth sciences, zoology, and medicine. Besides, many of the chemicals you use daily consist of organic compounds and the processes involve organic chemical reactions.

1. Organic Chemistry Studies Chemical Reactions Occurring Inside Living Beings

The main reason organic chemistry is so important is that it studies chemical reactions that take place in living beings. Without organic chemistry, scientists would not have been able to explore the mechanisms of different changes occurring during metabolism. In addition, organic chemistry provides detailed information about how different organic chemicals react to other compounds and which products are released in our bodies as a result of the chemical reactions.

2. Organic Chemistry Is Essential for Understanding Biochemical Principles and Biotechnology

Since organic chemistry studies chemical reactions occurring in living beings, it is essential for understanding basic biochemical principles. Organic chemistry allows biochemists to explore specific chemical reaction mechanisms and determine factors influencing the way organic compounds react with other chemicals. Organic chemistry also contributes to biotechnology, which involves the use of living organisms and various bioprocesses to create or modify products. Without organic synthesis reactions, medical, agricultural, industrial, and environmental biotechnology branches would not have existed.

3. Organic Chemistry Allows Scientists to Create and Explore New Chemicals

Organic chemistry is a laboratory-based science that involves the production of organic compounds from scratch. Organic chemistry leads to the synthesis of numerous useful products, including agricultural chemicals, drugs, food additives, plastics, paint, enzymes, cosmetics, and various synthetic materials. Along with synthesizing many essential substances, organic chemists develop efficient ways to produce compounds, making the overall process even more valuable.

4. Organic Chemistry Is Crucial for Studying Earth Sciences 

Earth sciences comprise five major areas, including geology, hydrology, meteorology, astronomy, and environmental science. On many occasions, earth scientists rely largely on organic chemistry principles. Organic chemistry allows geologists to study different materials on earth and how they change over time. It also provides the basis for quantitative and qualitative understanding of how our planet works and evolves.

5. Organic Chemistry Plays Key Role in Medicine and Pharmacy

Since organic chemistry is so important in medicine and pharmacy, there is a specific branch called medicinal organic chemistry. It utilizes knowledge of organic compounds to create, refine, and improve drugs and medication techniques. Synthetic organic chemistry also contributes to the discovery, research, and development of new medicines. Understanding organic chemistry is key to predicting the action of vitamins, supplements, and drugs, allowing healthcare professionals to choose the correct prescription and dosage.

6. Organic Chemistry Studies and Synthesizes Polymers

Without organic chemistry, scientists would not have been able to study natural polymers or create synthetic ones. While natural organic polymers provide basic structural materials for living beings and participate in key biochemical processes, synthetic polymers are widely used in the production industry. Polymers are used as raw materials for a wide range of products, ranging from synthetic fabric and clothing to plastic items and polymer-based paints.

7. Many Household Chemicals Consist of Organic Compounds 

Organic chemistry is not only about studying and synthesizing organic compounds. It also involves the creation of organic chemical-based products that we use on a daily basis. In fact, numerous household chemicals include organic compounds. For example, soaps are fatty acid salts of sodium or potassium. Besides, detergents consist of surfactants, which are typically amphiphilic organic compounds, such as polyglucose and coconut oil alcohol. Some other organic compounds found in household products are benzene, acetone, formaldehyde, toluene, xylene, and methylene chloride.

8. Skincare and Cosmetic Products Contain Organic Chemicals as Active Ingredients

If you are using any skincare or cosmetic products, you have probably noticed that each has a specific active ingredient responsible for providing benefits. While these products often contain inorganic chemicals, most active ingredients are organic compounds. Some popular active ingredients in skincare products are Alpha (Lactic Acid, Glycolic Acid, etc.) and Beta Hydroxy Acids (Salicylic acid), Hyaluronic Acid, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Glycerine, Niacinamide, Retinoids, Peptides, Ceramides, and many more. These organic chemicals are also present in some cosmetic products, boosting their performance and offering various benefits for your skin. Without organic chemistry, scientists would not have been able to determine what active ingredients to use for different skincare products.

9. Organic Chemistry Contributes to the Production of Perfumes and Fragrances

When making perfumes and fragrances, different organic chemicals are used to give them special scents and pleasant aromas. While natural ingredients already consist of organic chemicals, perfume components can also be synthesized in organic chemistry labs. For instance, methyl dihydrojasmonate (hedione) is an organic chemical that blends, fixes, and enhances the scent of other perfume components. If we are talking about the revolution in perfumery, aldehydes did the job. These organic chemicals not only give perfumes and fragrances unforgettable scents but also boost their performance. Summing up, organic chemistry allows scientists to synthesize perfume ingredients more efficiently.

10. Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Consist of Hydrocarbons and Organic Compounds

Organic chemistry is linked with gasoline and diesel fuel. The chemical composition of these crude oils mined from the earth is pretty straightforward. They consist of saturated, cyclic, and aromatic hydrocarbons, which are organic compounds. Therefore, organic chemistry also plays a fundamental role in gasoline and diesel fuel refining at petroleum refineries.

Application of Organic Chemistry to Health and Health Sciences

Organic chemistry plays a foundational role in health and health sciences, influencing drug development, disease diagnosis, treatment, and the understanding of biological systems. Below are the key applications:

1. Drug Discovery and Development

Pharmaceutical Chemistry: Organic chemistry is critical for designing and synthesizing new drugs. Medicinal chemists manipulate the structure of organic compounds to create molecules that can effectively treat diseases while minimizing side effects. Drugs like aspirin and penicillin are examples of organic compounds developed through these processes.

Structure-Activity Relationships (SAR): Organic chemistry helps understand how the structure of a drug relates to its biological activity, enabling optimization for better efficacy, selectivity, and bioavailability.

2. Biochemistry and Metabolic Pathways

Structure of Biomolecules: Organic chemistry explains the structure and function of essential biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Understanding these molecules is crucial for studying metabolism, energy production, and various disease mechanisms.

Enzymatic Reactions: Organic chemistry provides insights into how enzymes, which are organic proteins, catalyze biochemical reactions, influencing metabolic pathways and homeostasis in the body.

3. Cancer Research and Treatment

Chemotherapy Drugs: Many cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy agents, are based on organic compounds. These drugs are designed to target and destroy cancer cells by interfering with processes like DNA replication, while sparing healthy cells.

Targeted Therapy: Organic chemistry enables the development of drugs that specifically target cancer-causing proteins or genetic mutations, resulting in more personalized and effective treatments with fewer side effects.

4. Immunology and Vaccine Development

Antigen Synthesis: Organic chemistry is key in designing synthetic antigens that can trigger the immune system, leading to vaccine development. For example, mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines use organic chemistry principles to develop immunogenic molecules.

Adjuvants: Organic compounds are used as adjuvants in vaccines to enhance the immune response, making the vaccines more effective.

5. Clinical Chemistry and Diagnostics

Medical Testing: Organic chemistry is applied in diagnostic tests, such as blood glucose monitoring for diabetes, where organic reagents detect specific metabolites. Cholesterol levels, another organic compound, are tested to assess cardiovascular disease risk.

Biomarkers: Organic chemistry helps identify biomarkers—organic molecules indicating disease presence—allowing early diagnosis and better disease management.

6. Biotechnology and Bioengineering

Biopharmaceuticals: Organic chemistry is instrumental in the production of biologics, including monoclonal antibodies, enzymes, and hormones, used to treat diseases like cancer, autoimmune disorders, and diabetes.

Medical Devices and Biomaterials: Organic chemistry is applied in designing biocompatible polymers for medical implants, prosthetics, and drug delivery systems. These materials are engineered to be safe and effective when used inside the body.

Gene Editing (CRISPR): Advances in organic chemistry have enabled technologies like CRISPR, which allow for the precise editing of DNA sequences to treat genetic disorders.

7. Toxicology and Drug Metabolism

Chemical Toxicity: Organic chemistry is essential for understanding how poisons and toxic substances affect the human body at the molecular level. This includes developing antidotes and establishing safe exposure limits for chemicals.

Drug Metabolism: Organic chemistry explains how the body metabolizes drugs and toxins, which is critical for determining safe dosages and predicting side effects. It also includes the study of xenobiotics—foreign substances introduced into the body.

8. Nutrition and Food Chemistry

Nutritional Chemistry: Organic chemistry is involved in understanding the structure and function of vitamins, minerals, and macronutrients like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. This knowledge is essential for developing dietary supplements, fortifying foods, and analyzing nutritional content.

Food Additives and Preservatives: Organic compounds are used to develop food additives that preserve the quality of food and improve health by fortifying nutrients.

9. Endocrinology and Hormonal Chemistry

Steroid Hormones: Organic chemistry provides insights into the structure and function of hormones like estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. These hormones regulate vital bodily functions including metabolism, immune response, and reproduction.

Endocrine Disruptors: Organic chemistry also helps identify and study endocrine disruptors, which are synthetic chemicals that interfere with hormone function and can lead to health issues such as reproductive problems or cancer.

10. Antibiotics and Antimicrobials

Antibiotic Synthesis: Organic chemistry has led to the development of antibiotics like penicillin and tetracycline, which are used to treat bacterial infections. This area remains a critical focus due to the rise of antibiotic resistance.

Antiviral Drugs: Organic compounds also serve as the foundation for antiviral medications, such as those used to treat diseases like HIV and influenza.

Organic chemistry is integral to both health and health sciences, with its applications spanning drug discovery, cancer treatment, vaccine development, diagnostics, and biotechnology. Its contributions to understanding and manipulating biological systems have paved the way for many medical advancements, improving human health and disease treatment on multiple fronts.

The Functional Groups

A functional group is an atom, a group of atoms, or a chemical bond responsible for the physicochemical properties of an organic compound.

All molecules containing the same functional group undergo similar chemical reactions. A typical functional group is the hydroxyl group, -OH. When the hydroxyl group replaces one hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon, a family of compounds called alkanols is formed. Another example is the carboxyl group, -CO2H, present in all alkanoic acids.

Common Homologous series

 

Homologous	Functional	Example
Alkanes	-C-H	ethane
Alkenes		H2C=CH2 ethene
Alkynes		ethyne
Alkanols	-OH	CH3OH methanol
Alkanoic acids	-COOH	CH3COOH ethanoic acid
Alkanals	-CHO	CH3CHO ethanal
Alkanones		CH3COCH3 propanone
Alkanoates	-COO-	CH3COOCH3 methyl ethanoate
Amines		CH3CH2NH2 ethanamine
Alkoxyalkanes		H3COCH3methoxymethane

Revision Exercises

7. What is a functional group in organic chemistry?

8. Mention two organic functional groups.